Category: Europe

by Riccardo Vetturini, Fabrizio Mollailoli, Paolo Bazzurro

Typical house occupied by low-income and middle-class families in rural areas of central Italy. The building studied in this report is located in the municipality of Nocera Umbra, province of Perugia, Umbria region, Italy. This type of building, with minor differences in construction practice and material, is frequently found throughout central Italy. The four-story building was constructed more than 200 years ago and is located on a steep hillside, with the elevation facing the valley completely above grade; the uphill elevation is two stories above grade, with the two stories below ground-level surrounded on two sides by earth-retaining stone masonry walls. This building was severely damaged by the 1997 Umbria-Marche earthquake and was further weakened by the elements before repair and reconstruction efforts began in 2003. Figures 1 through 5 show the damaged building before reconstruction. Figure 6 helps to locate this building in the cluster of buildings around the old citadel. The exterior elevation facing the downhill slope is displayed in Figure 7. The overall floor plan of this building is L-shaped; it accommodates two residential units and has a basement with four separate spaces and entrances for housing farm animals and storing tools. Building plans showing the extent of wall and floor reconstruction can be seen in Figures 8 to 10. Figures 12 to 14 display details of the seismic retrofit. Most buildings of this type, however, are smaller in size, rectangular in shape, and often have one unit. It is very common for these buildings to share perimeter walls with adjacent buildings. In these rural regions it is typical for many generations of a single family to live in the same residence and the building has undergone numerous additions and modifications over its life span to accommodate changing living requirements. The construction modifications are typical of Italian rural regions. The architecture is fairly plain with few architectural details of significant historic value; these were repaired and restored during the seismic reconstruction project. Gravity loads in the building are carried by thick unreinforced stone walls constructed using a technique referred to as “a sacco”. The walls consist of two outer stone wythes that are poorly connected by a limited number (if they are present at all) of bond-stones. The space between the two outer wythes is filled with an inner core of smaller rubble masonry, poorly consolidated and poorly graded by a mixture of lime or mud mortar. This construction technique results in walls with limited vertical and lateral capacity because of the presence of voids between the stone masonry and the lack of effective continuity between the inner and outer wythes. The pre-earthquake construction technique and the quality of the mortar in the stone masonry walls were poor. The lack of continuity between the original stone masonry walls and the walls constructed during the various structural additions worsened their condition (see Figure 4). The majority of the floor slabs are constructed of timber beams with intermediate timber joists. Other areas of more recent vintage consist of vaulted floor construction assembled from steel beams and clay-infill bricks arching between them with a lightweight concrete topping layer. Poor seismic performance is expected, mostly because of the ineffective connection between interior and exterior wythes of the walls and existing structural deficiencies (e.g., flues, niches, etc.); lack of effective wall-to-wall, wall-to-slab, and wall-to-roof connections; and lack of continuous foundation-to-roof walls due to the vertically unaligned openings on the facade. Very thick walls present throughout the building, especially at the foundation level, and occasional iron tie-rods add to the structural strength.

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by Riccardo Vetturini, Anacleto Cleri, Fabrizio Mollailoli, Paolo Bazzurro

This is a typical house occupied by affluent families in rural areas of central Italy. The building discussed in this report is called “Palazzo Spinola” and is located in the town of Foligno in the Umbria region (see Figures 1 and 2). The building has four stories above ground and a completely below-grade basement. Floor plans and cross sections are shown in Figures 3 to 9. Significant geometrical complexity has resulted from additional construction since it was originally built in the seventeenth century. The original construction includes only a portion of the interior building as well as the entire exterior facade. The building has an interior courtyard within the perimeter of the building. It contains a well and a cloister (a covered path with ornate columns) that separates it from the grounds. These are also part of the original construction and have significant artistic value. The upper portion of the cloister is accessible and serves as a connection between the two exterior wings of the residence. The thick walls are constructed using a typical technique called “a sacco.” This construction technique consists of two outer wythes that are poorly connected by transversal bond-stones (“diatoni”) and filled with essentially unconsolidated inner cores of rubble masonry, poorly cemented with lime mortar. The floor slabs may be of mixed construction, depending on the era. The ground floor has “a padiglione” vaulted ceilings, which are constructed of solid bricks assembled in fairly regular fashion. The second-floor ceilings are vaulted and partly frescoed. Some of the ceilings in the residence have great artistic value, with painted wooden panels (“cassettoni”). The floor slabs on the upper stories are considerably simpler in construction and are made of timber trusses with hollow-clay tiles in between. The structure supporting the roof is made of timber trusses with both vertical and diagonal struts and bottom chords. Some trusses are more complex, similar to Palladian trusses. Buildings of this type are expected to demonstrate fairly poor seismic performance, mostly due to the ineffective connection between interior and exterior wall wythes and existing structural deficiencies (e.g., flues, niches, etc.); lack of effective wall-to-wall, wall-to-slab, and wall-to-roof connections; and the unbalanced outward thrust of the vaults. The structural strengths are represented by very thick walls present throughout the building, especially at the foundation level, and by the occasional iron tie-rods.

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by Mauro Sassu, Chiara Cei

This construction originated during the Middle Ages in response to the threat of military invasions. The building plan is a square lattice, 5-7 meters, formed by three or four floors, with one room on each floor, and a total height of 15-20 m. It is a common technique found in Pisa but also found frequently in many municipalities of Tuscany and adjacent districts. The structure of the building is supported by four stone columns connected by arches (circle or oval) or by beams at each floor; the floor is supported by a series of wood beams (especially pine) with wood tables and/or clay blocks. The upper floors of the earlier historic buildings often contained a wood balcony supported by cantilevered wood beams. Some balconies were fully enclosed structures with clay-tile roofing. The entrance on the first floor could be accessed by means of a detachable wood staircase.

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